Naive Particle Smoothing is Degenerate

/ Dominic Steinitz

Introduction

Let \{X_t\}_{t \geq 1} be a (hidden) Markov process. By hidden, we mean that we are not able to observe it.

\displaystyle X_1 \sim \mu(\centerdot) \quad X_t \,|\, (X_{t-1} = x) \sim f(\centerdot \,|\, x)

And let \{Y_t\}_{t \geq 1} be an observable Markov process such that

\displaystyle Y_t \,|\, (X_{t} = x) \sim g(\centerdot \,|\, x)

That is the observations are conditionally independent given the state of the hidden process.

As an example let us take the one given in Särkkä (2013) where the movement of a car is given by Newton’s laws of motion and the acceleration is modelled as white noise.

\displaystyle \begin{aligned} X_t &= AX_{t-1} + Q \epsilon_t \\ Y_t &= HX_t + R \eta_t \end{aligned}

Although we do not do so here, A, Q, H and R can be derived from the dynamics. For the purpose of this blog post, we note that they are given by

\displaystyle A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & \Delta t & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & \Delta t \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} , \quad Q = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{q_1^c \Delta t^3}{3} & 0 & \frac{q_1^c \Delta t^2}{2} & 0 \\ 0 & \frac{q_2^c \Delta t^3}{3} & 0 & \frac{q_2^c \Delta t^2}{2} \\ \frac{q_1^c \Delta t^2}{2} & 0 & {q_1^c \Delta t} & 0 \\ 0 & \frac{q_2^c \Delta t^2}{2} & 0 & {q_2^c \Delta t} \end{bmatrix}

and

\displaystyle H = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} , \quad R = \begin{bmatrix} \sigma_1^2 & 0 \\ 0 & \sigma_2^2 \end{bmatrix}

We wish to determine the position and velocity of the car given noisy observations of the position. In general we need the distribution of the hidden path given the observable path. We use the notation x_{m:n} to mean the path of x starting a m and finishing at n.

\displaystyle p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n}) = \frac{p(x_{1:n}, y_{1:n})}{p(y_{1:n})}

Haskell Preamble

> {-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wall                     #-}
> {-# OPTIONS_GHC -fno-warn-name-shadowing  #-}
> {-# OPTIONS_GHC -fno-warn-type-defaults   #-}
> {-# OPTIONS_GHC -fno-warn-unused-do-bind  #-}
> {-# OPTIONS_GHC -fno-warn-missing-methods #-}
> {-# OPTIONS_GHC -fno-warn-orphans         #-}

> {-# LANGUAGE FlexibleInstances            #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE MultiParamTypeClasses        #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE FlexibleContexts             #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE TypeFamilies                 #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE BangPatterns                 #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving   #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE ScopedTypeVariables          #-}
> {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell              #-}

> module ParticleSmoothing
>   ( simpleSamples
>   , carSamples
>   , testCar
>   , testSimple
>   ) where

> import Data.Random.Source.PureMT
> import Data.Random hiding ( StdNormal, Normal )
> import qualified Data.Random as R
> import Control.Monad.State
> import Control.Monad.Writer hiding ( Any, All )
> import qualified Numeric.LinearAlgebra.HMatrix as H
> import Foreign.Storable ( Storable )
> import Data.Maybe ( fromJust )
> import Data.Bits ( shiftR )
> import qualified Data.Vector as V
> import qualified Data.Vector.Unboxed as U
> import Control.Monad.ST
> import System.Random.MWC

> import Data.Array.Repa ( Z(..), (:.)(..), Any(..), computeP,
>                          extent, DIM1, DIM2, slice, All(..)
>                        )
> import qualified Data.Array.Repa as Repa

> import qualified Control.Monad.Loops as ML

> import PrettyPrint ()
> import Text.PrettyPrint.HughesPJClass ( Pretty, pPrint )

> import Data.Vector.Unboxed.Deriving

Some Theory

If we could sample X_{1:n}^{(i)} \sim p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n}) then we could approximate the posterior as

\displaystyle \hat{p}(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n}) = \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N \delta_{X_{1:n}^{(i)}}(x_{1:n})

If we wish to, we can create marginal estimates

\displaystyle \hat{p}(x_k \,|\, y_{1:n}) = \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N \delta_{X_{k}^{(i)}}(x_{k})

When k = N, this is the filtering estimate.

Standard Bayesian Recursion

Prediction

\displaystyle \begin{aligned} p(x_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) &= \int p(x_{n-1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) \,\mathrm{d}x_{n-1} \\ &= \int p(x_{n} \,|\, x_{n-1}, y_{1:n-1}) \, p(x_{n-1} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) \,\mathrm{d}x_{n-1} \\ &= \int f(x_{n} \,|\, x_{n-1}) \, p(x_{n-1} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) \,\mathrm{d}x_{n-1} \\ \end{aligned}

Update

\displaystyle \begin{aligned} p(x_n \,|\, y_{1:n}) &= \frac{p(y_n \,|\, x_n, y_{1:n-1}) \, p(x_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} {p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \\ &= \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_n) \, p(x_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} {p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \end{aligned}

where by definition

\displaystyle {p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} = \int {g(y_n \,|\, x_n) \, p(x_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \,\mathrm{d}x_n

Path Space Recursion

We have

\displaystyle \begin{aligned} p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n}) &= \frac{p(x_{1:n}, y_{1:n})}{p(y_{1:n})} \\ &= \frac{p(x_n, y_n \,|\, x_{1:n-1}, y_{1:n-1})}{p(y_{1:n})} \, p(x_{1:n-1}, y_{1:n-1}) \\ &= \frac{p(y_n \,|\, x_{1:n}, y_{1:n-1}) \, p(x_n \,|\, x_{1:n-1}, y_{1:n-1}) }{p(y_{1:n})} \, p(x_{1:n-1}, y_{1:n-1}) \\ &= \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_{n}) \, f(x_n \,|\, x_{n-1})}{p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \, \frac{p(x_{1:n-1}, y_{1:n-1})}{ \, p(y_{1:n-1})} \\ &= \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_{n}) \, f(x_n \,|\, x_{n-1})}{p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \, {p(x_{1:n-1} \,|\,y_{1:n-1})} \\ &= \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_{n}) \, \overbrace{f(x_n \,|\, x_{n-1}) \, {p(x_{1:n-1} \,|\,y_{1:n-1})}}^{\mathrm{predictive}\,p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1})}} {p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \\ \end{aligned}

where by definition

\displaystyle p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) = \int g(y_n \,|\, x_n) \, p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) \,\mathrm{d}x_{1:n}

Prediction

\displaystyle p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) = f(x_n \,|\, x_{n-1}) \, {p(x_{1:n-1} \,|\,y_{1:n-1})}

Update

\displaystyle p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n}) = \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_{n}) \, {p(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1})}} {p(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})}

Algorithm

The idea is to simulate paths using the recursion we derived above.

At time n-1 we have an approximating distribution

\displaystyle \hat{p}(x_{1:n-1} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) = \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N \delta_{X_{1:n-1}}^{(i)}(x_{1:n-1})

Sample \tilde{X}_n^{(i)} \sim f(\centerdot \,|\, X_{n-1}^{(i)}) and set \tilde{X}_{1:n}^{(i)} = (\tilde{X}_{1:n-1}^{(i)}, \tilde{X}_n^{(i)}). We then have an approximation of the prediction step

\displaystyle \hat{p}(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1}) = \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N \delta_{\tilde{X}_{1:n}}^{(i)}(x_{1:n})

Substituting

\displaystyle \begin{aligned} {\hat{p}(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} &= \int {g(y_n \,|\, x_n) \, \hat{p}(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \,\mathrm{d}x_n \\ &= \int {g(y_n \,|\, x_n)}\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N \delta_{\tilde{X}_{1:n-1}}^{(i)}(x_{1:n}) \,\mathrm{d}x_n \\ &= \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N {g(y_n \,|\, \tilde{X}_n^{(i)})} \end{aligned}

and again

\displaystyle \begin{aligned} \tilde{p}(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n}) &= \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_{n}) \, {\hat{p}(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n-1})}} {\hat{p}(y_n \,|\, y_{1:n-1})} \\ &= \frac{g(y_n \,|\, x_{n}) \, \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N \delta_{\tilde{X}_{1:n}}^{(i)}(x_{1:n})} {\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^N {g(y_n \,|\, \tilde{X}_n^{(i)})}} \\ &= \frac{ \sum_{i=1}^N g(y_n \,|\, \tilde{X}_n^{(i)}) \, \delta_{\tilde{X}_{1:n}}^{(i)}(x_{1:n})} {\sum_{i=1}^N {g(y_n \,|\, \tilde{X}_n^{(i)})}} \\ &= \sum_{i=1}^N W_n^{(i)} \delta_{\tilde{X}_{1:n}^{(i)}} (x_{1:n}) \end{aligned}

where W_n^{(i)} \propto g(y_n \,|\, \tilde{X}_n^{(i)}) and \sum_{i=1}^N W_n^{(i)} = 1.

Now sample

\displaystyle X_{1:n}^{(i)} \sim \tilde{p}(x_{1:n} \,|\, y_{1:n})

A Haskell Implementation

Let’s specify some values for the example of the car moving in two dimensions.

> deltaT, sigma1, sigma2, qc1, qc2 :: Double
> deltaT = 0.1
> sigma1 = 1/2
> sigma2 = 1/2
> qc1 = 1
> qc2 = 1

> bigA :: H.Matrix Double
> bigA = (4 H.>< 4) bigAl

> bigAl :: [Double]
> bigAl = [1, 0 , deltaT,      0,
>          0, 1,       0, deltaT,
>          0, 0,       1,      0,
>          0, 0,       0,      1]

> bigQ :: H.Herm Double
> bigQ = H.trustSym $ (4 H.>< 4) bigQl

> bigQl :: [Double]
> bigQl = [qc1 * deltaT^3 / 3,                  0, qc1 * deltaT^2 / 2,                  0,
>                           0, qc2 * deltaT^3 / 3,                  0, qc2 * deltaT^2 / 2,
>          qc1 * deltaT^2 / 2,                  0,       qc1 * deltaT,                  0,
>                           0, qc2 * deltaT^2 / 2,                  0,       qc2 * deltaT]

> bigH :: H.Matrix Double
> bigH = (2 H.>< 4) [1, 0, 0, 0,
>                    0, 1, 0, 0]

> bigR :: H.Herm Double
> bigR = H.trustSym $ (2 H.>< 2) [sigma1^2,        0,
>                                        0, sigma2^2]

> m0 :: H.Vector Double
> m0 = H.fromList [0, 0, 1, -1]

> bigP0 :: H.Herm Double
> bigP0 = H.trustSym $ H.ident 4

> n :: Int
> n = 23

With these we generate hidden and observable sample path.

> carSample :: MonadRandom m =>
>              H.Vector Double ->
>              m (Maybe ((H.Vector Double, H.Vector Double), H.Vector Double))
> carSample xPrev = do
>   xNew <- sample $ rvar (Normal (bigA H.#> xPrev) bigQ)
>   yNew <- sample $ rvar (Normal (bigH H.#> xNew) bigR)
>   return $ Just ((xNew, yNew), xNew)

> carSamples :: [(H.Vector Double, H.Vector Double)]
> carSamples = evalState (ML.unfoldrM carSample m0) (pureMT 17)

We can plot an example trajectory for the car and the noisy observations that are available to the smoother / filter.

Sadly there is no equivalent to numpy in Haskell. Random number packages generate vectors, for multi-rank arrays there is repa and for fast matrix manipulation there is hmtatrix. Thus for our single step path update function, we have to pass in functions to perform type conversion. Clearly with all the copying inherent in this approach, performance is not going to be great.

The type synonym ArraySmoothing is used to denote the cloud of particles at each time step.

> type ArraySmoothing = Repa.Array Repa.U DIM2

> singleStep :: forall a . U.Unbox a =>
>               (a -> H.Vector Double) ->
>               (H.Vector Double -> a) ->
>               H.Matrix Double ->
>               H.Herm Double ->
>               H.Matrix Double ->
>               H.Herm Double ->
>               ArraySmoothing a -> H.Vector Double ->
>               WriterT [ArraySmoothing a] (StateT PureMT IO) (ArraySmoothing a)
> singleStep f g bigA bigQ bigH bigR x y = do
>   tell[x]
>   let (Z :. ix :. jx) = extent x
> 
>   xHatR <- lift $ computeP $ Repa.slice x (Any :. jx - 1)
>   let xHatH = map f $ Repa.toList (xHatR  :: Repa.Array Repa.U DIM1 a)
>   xTildeNextH <- lift $ mapM (\x -> sample $ rvar (Normal (bigA H.#> x) bigQ)) xHatH
> 
>   let xTildeNextR = Repa.fromListUnboxed (Z :. ix :. (1 :: Int)) $
>                     map g xTildeNextH
>       xTilde = Repa.append x xTildeNextR
> 
>       weights = map (normalPdf y bigR) $
>                 map (bigH H.#>) xTildeNextH
>       vs = runST (create >>= (asGenST $ \gen -> uniformVector gen n))
>       cumSumWeights = V.scanl (+) 0 (V.fromList weights)
>       totWeight = sum weights
>       js = indices (V.map (/ totWeight) $ V.tail cumSumWeights) vs
>       xNewV = V.map (\j -> Repa.transpose $
>                            Repa.reshape (Z :. (1 :: Int) :. jx + 1) $
>                            slice xTilde (Any :. j :. All)) js
>       xNewR = Repa.transpose $ V.foldr Repa.append (xNewV V.! 0) (V.tail xNewV)
>   computeP xNewR

The state for the car is a 4-tuple.

> data SystemState a = SystemState { xPos  :: a
>                                  , yPos  :: a
>                                  , _xSpd :: a
>                                  , _ySpd :: a
>                                  }

We initialize the smoother from some prior distribution.

> initCar :: StateT PureMT IO (ArraySmoothing (SystemState Double))
> initCar = do
>   xTilde1 <- replicateM n $ sample $ rvar (Normal m0 bigP0)
>   let weights = map (normalPdf (snd $ head carSamples) bigR) $
>                 map (bigH H.#>) xTilde1
>       vs = runST (create >>= (asGenST $ \gen -> uniformVector gen n))
>       cumSumWeights = V.scanl (+) 0 (V.fromList weights)
>       js = indices (V.tail cumSumWeights) vs
>       xHat1 = Repa.fromListUnboxed (Z :. n :. (1 :: Int)) $
>               map ((\[a,b,c,d] -> SystemState a b c d) . H.toList) $
>               V.toList $
>               V.map ((V.fromList xTilde1) V.!) js
>   return xHat1

Now we can run the smoother.

> smootherCar :: StateT PureMT IO
>             (ArraySmoothing (SystemState Double)
>             , [ArraySmoothing (SystemState Double)])
> smootherCar = runWriterT $ do
>   xHat1 <- lift initCar
>   foldM (singleStep f g bigA bigQ bigH bigR) xHat1 (take 100 $ map snd $ tail carSamples)

> f :: SystemState Double -> H.Vector Double
> f (SystemState a b c d) = H.fromList [a, b, c, d]

> g :: H.Vector Double -> SystemState Double
> g = (\[a,b,c,d] -> (SystemState a b c d)) . H.toList

And create inferred positions for the car which we then plot.

> testCar :: IO ([Double], [Double])
> testCar = do
>   states <- snd <$> evalStateT smootherCar (pureMT 24)
>   let xs :: [Repa.Array Repa.D DIM2 Double]
>       xs = map (Repa.map xPos) states
>   sumXs :: [Repa.Array Repa.U DIM1 Double] <- mapM Repa.sumP (map Repa.transpose xs)
>   let ixs = map extent sumXs
>       sumLastXs = map (* (recip $ fromIntegral n)) $
>                   zipWith (Repa.!) sumXs (map (\(Z :. x) -> Z :. (x - 1)) ixs)
>   let ys :: [Repa.Array Repa.D DIM2 Double]
>       ys = map (Repa.map yPos) states
>   sumYs :: [Repa.Array Repa.U DIM1 Double] <- mapM Repa.sumP (map Repa.transpose ys)
>   let ixsY = map extent sumYs
>       sumLastYs = map (* (recip $ fromIntegral n)) $
>                   zipWith (Repa.!) sumYs (map (\(Z :. x) -> Z :. (x - 1)) ixsY)
>   return (sumLastXs, sumLastYs)

So it seems our smoother does quite well at inferring the state at the latest observation, that is, when it is working as a filter. But what about estimates for earlier times? We should do better as we have observations in the past and in the future. Let’s try with a simpler example and a smaller number of particles.

First we create some samples for our simple 1 dimensional linear Gaussian model.

> bigA1, bigQ1, bigR1, bigH1 :: Double
> bigA1 = 0.5
> bigQ1 = 0.1
> bigR1 = 0.1
> bigH1 = 1.0

> simpleSample :: MonadRandom m =>
>               Double ->
>               m (Maybe ((Double, Double), Double))
> simpleSample xPrev = do
>   xNew <- sample $ rvar (R.Normal (bigA1 * xPrev) bigQ1)
>   yNew <- sample $ rvar (R.Normal (bigH1 * xNew) bigR1)
>   return $ Just ((xNew, yNew), xNew)

> simpleSamples :: [(Double, Double)]
> simpleSamples = evalState (ML.unfoldrM simpleSample 0.0) (pureMT 17)

Again create a prior.

> initSimple :: MonadRandom m => m (ArraySmoothing Double)
> initSimple = do
>   let y = snd $ head simpleSamples
>   xTilde1 <- replicateM n $ sample $ rvar $ R.Normal y bigR1
>   let weights = map (pdf (R.Normal y bigR1)) $
>                 map (bigH1 *) xTilde1
>       totWeight = sum weights
>       vs = runST (create >>= (asGenST $ \gen -> uniformVector gen n))
>       cumSumWeights = V.scanl (+) 0 (V.fromList $ map (/ totWeight) weights)
>       js = indices (V.tail cumSumWeights) vs
>       xHat1 = Repa.fromListUnboxed (Z :. n :. (1 :: Int)) $
>               V.toList $
>               V.map ((V.fromList xTilde1) V.!) js
>   return xHat1

Now we can run the smoother.

> smootherSimple :: StateT PureMT IO (ArraySmoothing Double, [ArraySmoothing Double])
> smootherSimple = runWriterT $ do
>   xHat1 <- lift initSimple
>   foldM (singleStep f1 g1 ((1 H.>< 1) [bigA1]) (H.trustSym $ (1 H.>< 1) [bigQ1^2])
>                           ((1 H.>< 1) [bigH1]) (H.trustSym $ (1 H.>< 1) [bigR1^2]))
>         xHat1
>         (take 20 $ map H.fromList $ map return . map snd $ tail simpleSamples)

> f1 :: Double -> H.Vector Double
> f1 a = H.fromList [a]

> g1 :: H.Vector Double -> Double
> g1 = (\[a] -> a) . H.toList

And finally we can look at the paths not just the means of the marginal distributions at the latest observation time.

> testSimple :: IO [[Double]]
> testSimple = do
>   states <- snd <$> evalStateT smootherSimple (pureMT 24)
>   let path :: Int -> IO (Repa.Array Repa.U DIM1 Double)
>       path i = computeP $ Repa.slice (last states) (Any :. i :. All)
>   paths <- mapM path [0..n - 1]
>   return $ map Repa.toList paths

We can see that at some point in the past all the current particles have one ancestor. The marginals of the smoothing distribution (at some point in the past) have collapsed on to one particle.

Notes

Helpers for the Inverse CDF

That these are helpers for the inverse CDF is delayed to another blog post.

> indices :: V.Vector Double -> V.Vector Double -> V.Vector Int
> indices bs xs = V.map (binarySearch bs) xs

> binarySearch :: Ord a =>
>                 V.Vector a -> a -> Int
> binarySearch vec x = loop 0 (V.length vec - 1)
>   where
>     loop !l !u
>       | u <= l    = l
>       | otherwise = let e = vec V.! k in if x <= e then loop l k else loop (k+1) u
>       where k = l + (u - l) `shiftR` 1

Multivariate Normal

The random-fu package does not contain a sampler or pdf for a multivariate normal so we create our own. This should be added to random-fu-multivariate package or something similar.

> normalMultivariate :: H.Vector Double -> H.Herm Double -> RVarT m (H.Vector Double)
> normalMultivariate mu bigSigma = do
>   z <- replicateM (H.size mu) (rvarT R.StdNormal)
>   return $ mu + bigA H.#> (H.fromList z)
>   where
>     (vals, bigU) = H.eigSH bigSigma
>     lSqrt = H.diag $ H.cmap sqrt vals
>     bigA = bigU H.<> lSqrt

> data family Normal k :: *

> data instance Normal (H.Vector Double) = Normal (H.Vector Double) (H.Herm Double)

> instance Distribution Normal (H.Vector Double) where
>   rvar (Normal m s) = normalMultivariate m s

> normalPdf :: (H.Numeric a, H.Field a, H.Indexable (H.Vector a) a, Num (H.Vector a)) =>
>              H.Vector a -> H.Herm a -> H.Vector a -> a
> normalPdf mu sigma x = exp $ normalLogPdf mu sigma x

> normalLogPdf :: (H.Numeric a, H.Field a, H.Indexable (H.Vector a) a, Num (H.Vector a)) =>
>                  H.Vector a -> H.Herm a -> H.Vector a -> a
> normalLogPdf mu bigSigma x = - H.sumElements (H.cmap log (diagonals dec))
>                               - 0.5 * (fromIntegral (H.size mu)) * log (2 * pi)
>                               - 0.5 * s
>   where
>     dec = fromJust $ H.mbChol bigSigma
>     t = fromJust $ H.linearSolve (H.tr dec) (H.asColumn $ x - mu)
>     u = H.cmap (\x -> x * x) t
>     s = H.sumElements u

> diagonals :: (Storable a, H.Element t, H.Indexable (H.Vector t) a) =>
>              H.Matrix t -> H.Vector a
> diagonals m = H.fromList (map (\i -> m H.! i H.! i) [0..n-1])
>   where
>     n = max (H.rows m) (H.cols m)

> instance PDF Normal (H.Vector Double) where
>   pdf (Normal m s) = normalPdf m s
>   logPdf (Normal m s) = normalLogPdf m s

Misellaneous

> derivingUnbox "SystemState"
>     [t| forall a . (U.Unbox a) => SystemState a -> (a, a, a, a) |]
>     [| \ (SystemState x y xdot ydot) -> (x, y, xdot, ydot) |]
>     [| \ (x, y, xdot, ydot) -> SystemState x y xdot ydot |]

> instance Pretty a => Pretty (SystemState a) where
>   pPrint (SystemState x y xdot ydot ) = pPrint (x, y, xdot, ydot)

Bibliography

Särkkä, Simo. 2013. Bayesian Filtering and Smoothing. New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.

2 thoughts on “Naive Particle Smoothing is Degenerate”

  1. wrt

    Sadly there is no equivalent to numpy in Haskell. Random number packages generate vectors, for multi-rank arrays there is repa and for fast matrix manipulation there is hmtatrix. Thus for our single step path update function, we have to pass in functions to perform type conversion. Clearly with all the copying inherent in this approach, performance is not going to be great.

    Is there any plan for Haskell to address this?

    Thanks
    George

    Reply

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